Enhanced sensitivity in Empagliflozin detection: A voltammetric sensor with molecularly imprinted graphite film for analyzing pharmaceuticals and biological fluids

Abstract

Polydopamine (PDA) has attracted considerable attention for its potential applications in biosensing, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering. In this study, we developed an exceptionally sensitive and selective pencil graphite electrode for quantifying Empagliflozin (EMP) by incorporating gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and a molecularly imprinted levodopa polymer (MIP). The electrodeposition of AuNPs greatly enhanced the electrode's sensitivity, while the electropolymerization of levodopa (L-Dopa) and the strong affinity of the MIP for EMP improved its selectivity. Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) was used to analyze the electrode's response, revealing linear detection over two concentration ranges: 5.00 × 10⁻⁹ to 1.00 × 10⁻⁶ M and 1.30 × 10⁻⁶ to 1.00 × 10⁻⁴ M, with a detection limit of 1.19 × 10⁻⁹ M. We meticulously optimized various experimental conditions to maximize the electrode's performance. The method was successfully validated and applied to directly measure EMP in tablets, human plasma, and urine samples without prior extraction, achieving impressive recovery rates between 95.78 % and 100.80 %. Additionally, the environmental impact was assessed using three green evaluation tools: Green Analytical Procedure Index, the Analytical Eco-Scale, and the Analytical GREEnness metric (AGREE).