Trio-colored appraisal of an eco-conscious method for the determination of bisphenol A in drinking water bottles and pharmaceutical eye-drop solutions

Abstract

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a hazardous endocrine-disrupting compound which is frequently detected in water sources due to its extensive application in plastic manufacturing. This study introduces an environmentally sustainable liquid-liquid microextraction (LLME) approach, coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection (HPLC/DAD), for the determination of BPA in drinking water bottles and pharmaceutical eye-drop solutions. 1-Decanol was employed as a green extraction solvent, and critical experimental parameters were systematically optimized to achieve maximum extraction efficiency. Furthermore, the mobile phase consisted of ethanol and water (40:60 v/v), both recognized as green solvents, further enhancing the method’s eco-friendly profile. The developed method demonstrated accepted linearity (r = 0.9989) within the concentration range of 25–20,000 ng mL^{− 1}. The high recovery rates (98.23%–101.73%) and the low relative standard deviations (RSD ≤ 3.0%) confirmed the method’s accuracy and precision. The method’s environmental sustainability was confirmed through comprehensive greenness and performance evaluations using the Analytical Eco-Scale, Modified Green Analytical Procedure Index (MoGAPI), Analytical GREEnness Metric Approach (AGREE), Click Analytical Chemistry Index (CACI) and the Environmental, Performance, and Practicality Index (EPPI)metrics. In addition, the carbon footprint reduction index (CaFRI) score of 78 demonstrated a substantial decrease in environmental burden, while the red analytical performance index (RAPI) score of 75 reflected strong analytical performance suitable for routine laboratory application. The developed method achieved a greenness of 78% (MoGAPI), blueness of 78%, and redness of 75%, collectively indicating full compliance with the white analytical chemistry (WAC) framework. Together, this trio-colored assessment system effectively integrates environmental sustainability with analytical performance, offering a holistic paradigm for method evaluation. These findings position the proposed method as a viable and reliable alternative for BPA analysis in water samples and pharmaceutical solutions packed in plastic containers.