Dual TLC approaches for ICU drug monitoring: A comparative study of densitometry and portable smartphone-based detection of piperacillin, tazobactam, and paracetamol

Abstract

Broad-spectrum β-lactam antibiotics piperacillin (PIP) and tazobactam (TAZ) are widely co-administered in intensive care units (ICUs), frequently with paracetamol (PAR) for analgesic and antipyretic therapy. PAR may also appear as an adulterant in counterfeit medicines, posing serious risks such as reduced antibiotic efficacy, hepatotoxicity, and masking of clinical symptoms. These concerns are amplified in ICUs, where patients often experience severe or life-threatening infections. Therefore, reliable and practical analytical tools enabling simultaneous determination of these drugs are essential. This study introduces two thin-layer chromatography (TLC)-based methods for simultaneous determination of PIP, TAZ, and PAR in pharmaceutical formulations and human plasma. The first method is based on conventional TLC–densitometry, while the second relies on a rapid smartphone-assisted detection approach after iodine visualization. Effective chromatographic separation was achieved using a mobile phase of n-butanol, glacial acetic acid, water, and ammonia (4:2:2:1, v/v). The TLC-densitometric method showed linearity ranges of 1.00–20.00 μg/band for PIP, 0.50–20.00 μg/band for TAZ, and 3.00–20.00 μg/band for PAR, indicating good sensitivity at low concentrations. Conversely, the smartphone-based method demonstrated linearity ranges of 40.00–80.00, 100.00–500.00, and 60.00–100.00 μg/band for PIP, TAZ, and PAR, respectively. Although less sensitive, it provides a portable, low-cost, and user-friendly option for on-site analysis. Both methods were fully validated and successfully applied to pharmaceutical products and spiked human plasma. High Blue Applicability Grade Index and Click Analytical Chemistry Index scores confirmed their sustainability, practicality, and suitability for quality control, clinical laboratories, and rapid ICU drug monitoring. The approaches support improved therapeutic safety and rapid decision making.